Prosocial Gaming Annotated Bibliography
Compiled by Richard Wirth (E-mail: rwirth91@gmail.com).
IntroductionThe assembled bibliography contains a list of resources on exploring the ways in which video games affect interpersonal relations, behavior, and motivations. Aggression and antisocial behaviors have long been an area of great interest for news media and concerned parties, as is the natural progression for introducing any new technology to society. These studies have recently expanded outwards however, as researchers explore the potential benefits of video games, both in terms of social capital and mental health. As this mission of understanding the players pre, post, and during play has advanced, studies have gone on to collect player census data, online community formation and attrition, and more. During my time as a Leonardo graduate fellow, these are the collective resources I have used in conducting literature reviews and preparing research studies.
References
Anderson, Craig A., Akiko Shibuya, Nobuko Ihori, Edward L. Swing, Brad J. Bushman, Akira Sakamoto, Hannah R. Rothstein, and Muniba Saleem. "Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern and Western Countries: A Meta-analytic Review." Psychological Bulletin 136.2 (2010): 151-73. Print.
The authors, researchers from a number of different universities, conduct a meta-analytic review on studies related to violent video games, and their effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior, in both eastern and western countries. Their evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violence video games holds a causal relationship to increased aggressive behavior, increased aggressive cognition, and decreased empathy. The authors also concluded that neither culture nor gender played a significant role in the data. There was however a significant age effect that suggests that children are more susceptible than young adults to this effect, suggesting that emotional priming, triggered in the first few minutes of gameplay, are responsible for this effect.
Bartholow, B. D. "Correlates and Consequences of Exposure to Video Game Violence: Hostile Personality, Empathy, and Aggressive Behavior." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31.11 (2005): 1573-586. Print.
The author attempts to approach the subject of violence in games from a new angle in this paper. Instead of simply measuring aggressive responses to violent video game exposure, Bartholow tackles the subject of desensitization. His research finds that those with low VVE (violent videogame exposure) were prone to more aggressive and violent behaviors, but those with high VVE were more consistently exhibiting aggression, with less spikes in behavior and emotional priming. I would suggest that this paper brings interesting insights to the field of study, in that we have been approaching the concept of video games and aggression all wrong. Quantitative studies can only evidence so much; the qualitative and contextual elements present in this paper and the research question that preceded it are getting to the heart of the issue.
Benford, Steve, Andy Crabtree, Martin Flintham, Adam Drozd, Rob Anastasi, Mark Paxton, Nick Tandavanitj, Matt Adams, and Ju Row-Farr. "Can You See Me Now?" ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction 13.1 (2006): 100-33. 1 Mar. 2006. Web. 3 Nov. 2014.
In this performance piece, the authors use what they dub an “adjacent reality” game to conduct ethnographic studies into how players interact in a virtual space with opponents in pursuit in the real world. Through the use of GPS, texting, and walkie-talkie audio streams, users were invited to jump in to a virtual environment in which they moved through city spaces, while live performers tracked their movements through linked technology and pursued them via GPS. The players could hear the performers communicate over walkie-talkie to one another, and were thus able to surmise hints about their location through context clues, breathless messages when running up hills, and so on. Through ethnographic study, the developers were able to draw some interesting conclusions about how the combination of technologies affords players some resilience to uncertainty in interaction with fellow players. Uncertainty was the primary topic of design for the authors, and this study provides an interesting look into how one can compensate for issues in uncertainty -- and other things-- through practiced design and mixed media.
Bricker, Leah A., and Philip Bell. "“GodMode Is His Video Game Name”: Situating Learning and Identity in Structures of Social Practice." Cultural Studies of Science Education 7.4 (2012): 883-902. Web.
In this ethnographic study, authors Bricker and Bell observe the gaming practices of one youth in an attempt to examine the associated learning practices, identity formation and expertise development. This is done in the context of new media classrooms, in which the authors cite the work of Gee (2003), Collins and Haverson (2009), and others to support the claim that games-assisted learning affordances and engagement can be combined with entertainment design for the purpose of STEM education.
Brom, Cyril, Michaela Buchtova, Vít Šisler, Filip Děchtěrenko, Rupert Palme, and Lisa M. Glenk. "Flow, Social Interaction Anxiety and Salivary Cortisol Responses in Serious Games: A Quasi-experimental Study." Computers & Education 79 (2014): 69-100. ScienceDirect. Web.
In this article, similar to the Bartholow study on desensitization, the collective authors explore a related factor in a larger, yet less explored field. To that end, the authors studied not just the effectiveness of serious games in teaching, but the role that flow state and engagement plays in this teaching. The paper explores an issue that I feel is often disregarded in the study of serious games, which is the concept of having fun while playing “serious games”. Many attach a stigma on the concept of having fun when a game is trying to teach a serious or pragmatic concept, and flow theory is a welcome addition to academic discourse on the subject.
Collins, Emily, and Jonathan Freeman. "Do Problematic and Non-problematic Video Game Players Differ in Extraversion, Trait Empathy, Social Capital and Prosocial Tendencies?" Computers in Human Behavior 29.5 (2013): 1933-940. Web.
Personality is always of concern in social psychology studies, and this paper by authors Collins and Freeman aim to discover what role it plays in social gaming environments. Their study, a questionnaire of over 400 participants, essentially concluded that personality is a non-factor in measuring empathy, social capital, and prosocial tendencies. The only noted relation was that problematic gamers had higher online social capital, and non-gamers had the least, which can be linked to the amount of game time each group exhibits.
Collister, Lauren B., and Travis L. Ross. "A Social Scientific Framework for Social Systems in Online Video Games: Building a Better Looking for Raid Loot System in World of Warcraft." Computers in Human Behavior 36 (2014): 1-12. 6 Apr. 2014. Web. 9 Nov. 2014.
This mixed-method study combines ethnographic research, focus groups, and surveys to analyze the beliefs and preferences of players in World of Warcraft’s “Looking for Raid” system. The authors utilize the research of Williams (2010) and Yee (2006) to map and understand player motivations, intentions, and feelings about this design system. The resulting semi-formal model suggests that players “prefer to have items they do not have”, and “will take items they already have, so that they may either give it to another person, sell it to them, or grief somebody”. This is an interesting look into one of the many complex systems contained within MMORPGs, and the way players feel about it.
Delwiche, Aaron. "Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOs) in the New Media Classroom." Journal of Educational Technology & Society 9.3 (2006): 160-72. Abstracts in Social Gerontology. Web. 5 Nov. 2014.
In this paper, Delwiche studies two classrooms which heavily involve the usage of MMORPGs. One classroom utilized Everquest to teach undergraduate communications majors, while the other used Second Life to teach game design principles. The author analyses both the design of the games for this purpose and the design of the classes, and offers several elements that are important when constructing a classroom around an MMORPG. The paper focused on the use of MMOs to teach research methods and game design, but goes on to explain what other functions MMOs could play in the classroom, such as the study of economics, advertising, and political discourse.
Dolgov, Igor, William J. Graves, Matthew R. Nearents, Jeremy D. Schwark, and C. Brooks Volkman. "Effects of Cooperative Gaming and Avatar Customization on Subsequent Spontaneous Helping Behavior." Computers in Human Behavior 33 (2014): 49-55. Web.
Researchers from New Mexico State University hypothesized that cooperative game play would positively correlate with spontaneous helping behavior, and tested this hypothesis with the additional qualifications of either a customized or stock player avatar. They concluded in their research that cooperative gameplay did induce more spontaneous helping in future events – in this example, picking up spilled pens – but that avatars did not bear a significant relevance.
Ewoldsen, David R., Cassie A. Eno, Bradley M. Okdie, John A. Velez, Rosanna E. Guadagno, and Jamie Decoster. "Effect of Playing Violent Video Games Cooperatively or Competitively on Subsequent Cooperative Behavior." Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 15.5 (2012): 277-80. Print.
In this study, researchers demonstrated that cooperative play in violent video games results in less directly aggressive behavior than does competitive play. Their data showed that cooperative play in first person shooters such as Halo 2 resulted in more tit-for-tat behavior, which the authors claim is commonly a precedent to cooperative behavior. The authors further conclude that, based on previous research by Axelrod and Dion, this tit-for-tat behavior is one of the best methods of increasing long-term behavior.
Farley, Kathryn, Michael Nitsche, Jay Bolter, and Blair Macintyre. "Augmenting Creative Realities: The Second Life Performance Project." Leonardo 42.1 (2009): 96-97. Print.
This project explores immersive virtual realities, and seeks to innovate on the way players interact with socially-enabled digital constructs. Authors Farley, Nitsche, Bolter, and Macintyre detail their design plans to integrate virtual reality devices and performance as methods for expanding emotional and artistic expression in a limited, closed system. The authors find their inclusion of AR technology and stage performance into the MMO space is a successful idea, but that much more experimentation and research is needed beyond these early stages.
Ferguson, Christopher J. "Evidence for Publication Bias in Video Game Violence Effects Literature: A Meta-analytic Review." Aggression and Violent Behavior 12.4 (2007): 470-82. Print.
In this article, Christopher Ferguson from Texas A&M’s Department of Behavioral, Applies Sciences examines the existing literature on video game violence for publication bias. While this was published in 2007 and is thus does not reflect recent trends in research publication, Ferguson did conclude that there was a significant amount of research bias in studies on aggression, and that studies on prosocial behavior were less susceptive to this bias. These findings can potentially reveal correlation between publication bias and the negative image of video games in news media at this time.
G., Rebolledo-Mendez, De Freitas S, and Gaona A.R.G. "A Model of Motivation Based on Empathy for AI-Driven Avatars in Virtual Worlds." IEEE Xplore. Proc. of IEEE, Coventry. IEE, 23 Mar. 2009. Web.
Utilizing the concept of shared intentionality, the authors outline their model for the development of avatar artificial intelligence that will enhance player motivation, particularly in ITSs, Intelligent Tutoring Systems. To this end, they incorporate research in affective processing, understanding the intentions of users, and Bayesian Belief Networks. Essentially, the end goal is for the AI-driven avatar to be able to learn of, understand, and work towards affecting the world they inhabit, thus sharing intentionality with the players in that space.
Gentile, D. A., C. A. Anderson, S. Yukawa, N. Ihori, M. Saleem, Lim Kam Ming, A. Shibuya, A. K. Liau, A. Khoo, B. J. Bushman, L. Rowell Huesmann, and A. Sakamoto. "The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence From Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35.6 (2009): 752-63. Print.
In an international, multi-method analysis of studies, these authors found that prosocial game designs fostered increased prosocial behaviors in both the short and long term, providing support for the GLM (General Learning Model). The studies took place in Singapore, Japan, and the U.S., across varied age groups and culture, and as such the results seem to be generalizable. The authors assert that because their experimental, correlational, and longitudinal studies yielded converging evidence, they can make a strong case for the positive social effects of cooperative, prosocial content.
Gitter, Seth A., Patrick J. Ewell, Rosanna E. Guadagno, Tyler F. Stillman, and Roy F. Baumeister. "Virtually Justifiable Homicide: The Effects of Prosocial Contexts on the Link between Violent Video Games, Aggression, and Prosocial and Hostile Cognition." Aggressive Behavior 39.5 (2013): 346-54. Print.
In this study, the authors accept that playing violent video games can stimulate aggression, but offered instead a dampening solution. They hypothesized that in a game in which violence has an explicitly prosocial motive, players exhibit higher signs of prosocial cognition, and reduced aggression as compared to violent games without the prosocial context. While the gathered data gave the authors enough evidence to support their claims, they include that certain limitations were perceived. While the prosocial context to violence produced less aggressive behaviors than did its purely violent counterpart, the aggression was not entirely eliminated
Greitemeyer, Tobias, and Silvia Osswald. "Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behavior." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98.2 (2010): 211-21. Print.
In this study, Greitemeyer and Osswald hypothesized that prosocial games would increase both spontaneous helping and intervention in a harassment situation. Their research showed results that strongly supported their claims, and in fact many participants devoted substantially more time and energy into helping with further studies after playing a prosocial video game than did their neutral counterparts. The authors assert that while violent video games may have negative social effects on players, prosocial video games have the opposite effect
Greitemeyer, Tobias, and Silvia Osswald. "Prosocial Video Games Reduce Aggressive Cognitions." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45.4 (2009): 896-900. Print.
In support of the General Learning Model, authors Greitemeyer and Osswald study how the content of certain video games may positively affect behavior. They hypothesize that playing prosocial video games decreases aggressive sognition, and in fact reduced hostile expectation bias and the accessibility of antisocial thoughts. Their research corroborates their assertions, and they strongly support and lend credence to the GLM’s assumption that the effects of video games are dependent upon the content of the game played.
Greitemeyer, Tobias, Silvia Osswald, and Markus Brauer. "Playing Prosocial Video Games Increases Empathy and Decreases Schadenfreude." Emotion 10.6 (2010): 796-802. Web.
In this study, the authors measure the effect of playing prosocial games on prosocial cognition and behavior. Using testing methods borrowed from Leach and Spears (2009) and related works, the concept of reducing schadenfreude is explored through measurement of compassion, empathy, and relief. The authors concluded that prosocial gaming did in fact show a positive relationship with these effects, though it is worth noting that their sample size was rather small at 56 student participants.
Happ, Christian, André Melzer, and Georges Steffgen. "Superman vs. BAD Man? The Effects of Empathy and Game Character in Violent Video Games." Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 16.10 (2013): 774-78. Web.
This study is exceptionally interesting; the authors examine the effects of empathetic narrative and character archetypes on prosocial behavior and aggression. Using a comparative study of Superman, the Joker, and various re-written backstories, the authors find that not only can empathy for a character and their motives enhance prosocial cognition, but it can backfire and increase hostility for villains.
Karlsen, Faltin. "Entrapment and Near Miss: A Comparative Analysis of Psycho-Structural Elements in Gambling Games and Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games." International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 9.2 (2011): 193-207. Web.
While this bibliography does not focus on topics such as addictive or problematic gameplay, this study is made relevant and interesting through the causes that the author argues could play a part in addictive behavior. Karlsen argues that the concepts of entrapment and near miss, psycho-structural elements found in gambling, are present in World of Warcraft. The author’s findings show that these effects and resultant behaviors are comparatively less impactful than when playing gambling games, though are likely influenced by genre-specific elements such as socialization and competitive play (a markedly different sense of competition than is found in a gambling game). The real effect of entrapment and near miss in games like World of Warcraft could be evidenced by the dedication to play excessively, or so suggests the author. Certainly an article worth a read, and raises questions for future research into dedication, motivation, and problematic play patterns.
Odrowska, Aleksandra M., and Karlijn Massar. "Predicting Guild Commitment in World of Warcraft with the Investment Model of Commitment." Computers in Human Behavior 34 (2014): 235-40. Web.
In this surprising study, the authors examine the quantifiable nature of commitment and motivation in MMORPG guilds, but emerged with a unique conclusion separate from their original hypothesis. While variables such as investment size and satisfaction with alternatives correlated positively with guild commitment, the authors found that this commitment correlated positively with good mental health. Also of interest is their findings that number of hours played correlated positively with poor mental health.
Okdie, Bradley M., David R. Ewoldsen, Nicole L. Muscanell, Rosanna E. Guadagno, Cassie A. Eno, John A. Valez, Robert A. Dunn, Jamie O'Mally, and Lauren R. Smith. "Missed Programs (You Can't TiVo This One): Why Psychologists Should Study Media." Perspectives on Psychological Science 9.2 (2014): 180-95. Print.
In this article, the collective authors argue that the current state of psychological literature does not accurately reflect the importance of media in determining behavior, and is underrepresented in undergraduate course offerings. The authors support their assertion with an analysis of media psychology and the creation of “a useful framework” from which psychologists can study media. They conclude their paper by offering suggestions for next steps for research in psychology and media
Olson, Judith S., and Wendy Kellogg. Ways of Knowing in HCI. New York: Springer, 2014. Print.
An excellent book in the various methodologies and ways of knowing in Human-Computer Interaction, this book was recommended to me as a beginner’s text for those who want to better consume HCI research. This volume’s first chapter was particularly helpful, as it covers the history, purpose, and function of ethnographic research, giving insight into the field’s origins and important figures.
Park, Seung-Bae, and Namho Chung. "Mediating Roles of Self-presentation Desire in Online Game Community Commitment and Trust Behavior of Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games." Computers in Human Behavior 27.6 (2011): 2372-379. Print.
In this paper, authors Park and Namho assert that existing literature on online communities fails to consider MMORPGs and grant them enough attention. The authors categorize MMORPGs as a ludic community, and study the way in which players express themselves. Utilizing self-presentation theory and social identity theory, the study examines the desire players feel to express themselves in these online communities, and showed that the biggest factor in modifying player expression was the element of interactivity found in MMORPGs. Additionally, the results indicated that this desire for self-presentation enhanced feelings of trust of online games, creating strong bonds of commitment between it and gamers
Prot, Sara, Douglas A. Gentile, Craig A. Anderson, Kanae Suzuki, Edward Swing, Kam Ming Lim, Yukiko Horiuchi, Margareta Jelic, Barbara Krahe, Wei Liuqing, Albert K. Liau, Angeline Khoo, Poesis D. Petrescu, Akira Sakamoto, Sachi Tajima, Roxana A. Toma, Wayne Warburton, Xuemin Zhang, and Ben Chun Pan Lam. "Long-Term Relations Among Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior." Psychological Science 25.2 (2014): 358-68. Sagepub. Web.
Utilizing an autoregressive path model, the authors measured for long-term effects of prosocial video games on empathy, prosocial behaviors, and related cognition. The results supported the hypothesis that these elements were positively related, and data revealed that prosocial media use had strong positive effects on spontaneous helping and prosocial behaviors.
Ratan, Rabindra A., Jae Eun Chung, Cuihua Shen, Dmitri Williams, and Marshall Scott Poole. "Schmoozing and Smiting: Trust, Social Institutions, and Communication Patterns in an MMOG." Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 16.1 (2010): 93-114. Print.
Exploring the nature of trust in online social institutions, the authors study this concept in the players of the popular MMORPG Everquest II. In a study of over 3,500 players, the authors aim to discover what design elements support trust development. In their research, they found that the smaller the social circle, the higher the level of trust. Additionally, voice-chat programs were strongly related to how much one trusted their guildmates in game, though did not affect trust of players outside of their guild. Surprisingly, the authors found that the amount of guild messages sent was not related to the amount of trust they placed in that guild. Finally, the authors conclude by saying that while the behaviors they studied shared elements with other online communities and communications, there still exist MMORPG-specific behaviors that have gone unstudied, that might be more particularly relevant to the study of social groups in games.
Reer, Felix, and Nicole C. Krämer. "Underlying Factors of Social Capital Acquisition in the Context of Online-gaming: Comparing World of Warcraft and Counter-Strike." Computers in Human Behavior 36 (2014): 179-89. ScienceDirect. Web. 19 Nov. 2014.
In this study, authors Reer and Krämer poll over 600 players of World of Warcraft and Counter-Strike to get at the underlying factors behind acquiring social capital. The authors hypothesized that three primary elements (physical proximity, social proximity, and familiarity) leads to increased tendency for self-disclosure and trust, and thus facilitates the formation of bridging and bonding social capital. The results of their study supported initial hypotheses, and furthered previous research evidencing that players more frequently acquire positive social capital when they go beyond the realm of the game and interact in offline events.
Shin, Dong-Hee. "The Dynamic User Activities in Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games." International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 26.4 (2010): 317-44. Web.
In this paper, author Dong-Hee Shin proposes a research model created through the application of reasoned action theory and the technology acceptance model. In testing this research model, Shin finds that users’ attitudes and intentioned are affected by two primary factors: perceived security and perceived enjoyment. Similar to other studies in this bibliography, such as Odrowska et al. (2014) and Brom et al. (2014), Shin explores the correlation between flow theory, user loyalty, and online behaviors.
Velez, John A., Chad Mahood, David R. Ewoldsen, and Emily Moyer-Gusé. "Ingroup Versus Outgroup Conflict in the Context of Violent Video Game Play." Communication Research 41.5 (2014): 607-26. Sagepub. Web. 12 Oct. 2014. <http://crx.sagepub.com/content/41/5/607>.
Expanding on the work of Ewoldsen et. al’s “Effect of Playing Violent Video Games Cooperatively or Competitively on Subsequent Cooperative Behavior”, this study explores whether or not the positive behavior trends previously noted will lead to explicitly prosocial actions. The authors conduct research on ingroup and outgroup cooperative and competitive play, with confederates planted on each side. The conducted research corroborates the previous findings, and evidences a positive correlation with spontaneous helping behavior. Additionally, cooperation with an outgroup member was shown to reduce aggression, and leads to a discussion on future research with regards to specific social contexts and violent video game play.
Williams, Dmitri, Nick Yee, and Scott E. Caplan. "Who Plays, How Much, and Why? Debunking the Stereotypical Gamer Profile." Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13.4 (2008): 993-1018. Web.
In this seminal work, the authors cooperate with Sony Online Entertainment and gain access, for the first time, to a for-profit company’s mainstream MMORPG data. Combining data from SoE’s servers and a survey in which 7,000 players participated, an effective census was established for the players of EverQuest 2, which the authors assert is representative of the MMORPG fantasy genre, representing a vast majority of MMO players. Additionally, this study reproduced and granted further validity to the Yee (2006) model of player motivation in online games.
Wouters, Pieter, Christof Van Nimwegen, Herre Van Oostendorp, and Erik D. Van Der Spek. "A Meta-analysis of the Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Serious Games." Journal of Educational Psychology 105.2 (2013): 249-65. Web.
In this study, the authors aim to measure whether or not serious games differ from conventional instruction methods with regards to motivation, learning, and retention. Using meta-analytic techniques, they discover that serious games were more effective in terms of learning and retention, but surprisingly they were not more motivating than conventional instruction. Additionally, they further discovered that learners in serious games learned more when the games were combined with multiple training sessions and group work or socializing.
Yee, Nick. "Motivations for Play in Online Games." CyberPsychology & Behavior 9.6 (2006): 772-75. Web.
In this classic paper on MMORPG player studies, Dr. Yee utilizes Bartle’s Player Types and various other qualitative data to construct a more empirical model of player motivation. A principle components analysis was used to reveal 10 components of motivation, and these were grouped into the categories of “Achievement”, “Social”, and “Immersion”. The author asserts that, at the point of this publication, games were the victims of sweeping generalizations, and research like this was needed to reveal the myriad motivations and player personalities that exist in virtual worlds.
Zhong, Zhi-Jin. "The Effects of Collective MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games) Play on Gamers’ Online and Offline Social Capital." Computers in Human Behavior 27.6 (2011): 2352-363. Print.
In this interesting study, Zhong finds that collective MMORPG play (conceptualized as the frequency of joint gaming and the player’s assessment of guilds and groups) has a positive impact on both virtual and real world social capital. Collective MMORPG play supports bonding and bridging social capital and online civic engagement. While collective online play does not have significant effects on offline bonding and bridging social capital, offline civic engagement shows a strong increase. The author asserts that empirical evidence supports his claims that MMORPG play positively correlates with online and offline social capital in Chinese culture, and details how it influences gamers’ social networks and participation
Updated 15 December 2014
